Skip to main content

Endocrine System

Endocrine System 


The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that carry those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine

Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glandswithin the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.

Function


See also: List of human endocrine organs and actions

Hormones


Main article: Hormone

A hormone is a class of signaling moleculesproduced by glands in multicellular organismsthat are transported by the circulatory systemto target distant organs to regulate physiologyand behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/proteinderivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).

Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiologicalregulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissuefunction, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood

Cell signalling


The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.

Autocrine


Main article: Autocrine signalling

Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.

Paracrine


Main article: Paracrine signaling

Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.

Juxtacrine


Main article: Juxtacrine signalling

Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.

It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.



Disease




Disability-adjusted life year for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.

  no data

  less than 80

  80–160

  160–240

  240–320

  320–400

  400–480

  480–560

  560–640

  640–720

  720–800

  800–1000

  more than 1000

Main article: Endocrine diseases

Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[8] including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.

Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.[citation needed]

As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptorhas been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.

Comments

higherschool11.blogspot.com

Liver

Liver  The liver is the gland in the body weighing between 1 and 2.3 kg it is situated in  the upper part of the abdomonal cavity occupying the greater part of the right hypochondriac region part of the epigastric region and extending into the left hypochondriac region organs associated with the liverer The liver is endoclosed in a thin inelastic capsule and incompletely covered by a layer of peritoneumv. Folds of peritoneum form supporting ligaments atteching the liver to the inferior surface of the diaphragm  The liver has four lobes .The two most obivious are the large right lobe and the  smaller , wedge-shape left lobe .  The other two the caudate and quadrate lobes are areas on the posterior  The portal fissure This is the name given to the region on the posterior surface of the liver where various structure enter and leave the gland Blood supply  The hepatic aetery and the portal vein take blood to the liver venou...

kidney

Kidney The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs in the renal system. They help the body pass waste as urine. They also help filter blood before sending it back to the heart. The kidneys perform many crucial functions, including: maintaining overall fluid balance regulating and filtering minerals from blood filtering waste materials from food, medications, and toxic substances creating hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone health, and regulate blood pressure Nephrons Nephrons are the most important part of each kidney. They take in blood, metabolize nutrients, and help pass out waste products from filtered blood. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons. Each has its own internal set of structures. Renal corpuscle After blood enters a nephron, it goes into the renal corpuscle, also called a Malpighian body. The renal corpuscle contains two additional structures: The glomerulus.  This is a cluster of cap...

Heart blood circulation

heart blood circulation  The circulatory system includes the  lymphatic system , which circulates  lymph . [1]  The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood. [2]  Blood is a fluid consisting of  plasma ,  red blood cells ,  white blood cells , and  platelets  that is circulated by the  heart  through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been  filtered  from the  interstitial fluid  (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart, and  blood vessels . [3]  The lymph,  lymph nodes , and  lymph vessels  form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells...